Trehalose is a unique non-reducing disaccharide, which is known as the "sugar of life" because of its remarkable biological properties and wide range of applications. It is not only an important energy reserve for many kinds of living organisms in nature but also provides protection for living organisms from unfavorable external environments under adverse conditions. Thanks to its excellent moisturizing properties, cold and drought resistance, and heat and acid resistance, trehalose plays an important role in food, medicine, cosmetics, and other fields.
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What is Trehalose?
Trehalose is a non-reducing disaccharide consisting of two glucose molecules linked by an α-1,1-glycosidic bond, with a chemical formula of C12H22O11 and molecular weight of 342.3 or 378.3 (including water of crystallization). Its chemical structure is α-D-glucopyranosyl-α-D-glucopyranoside, which usually exists as a dihydrate compound.
Fig.1 Structural illustration of trehalose, a disaccharide formed by combining two glucose molecules with an α-1,1 glycosidic linkage[1].
Trehalose is widely found in nature, including bacteria, fungi, algae, yeasts, and plants, and is particularly abundant in brown algae. It is an important stress metabolite that not only provides energy under normal physiological conditions but also protects biomolecules from damage under stress conditions such as heat, desiccation, and oxidation.
Trehalose is prepared in various ways, with the following methods predominating:
| Methods | Features | Advantages | Disadvantages |
| Microbial fermentation | Conversion of starch to trehalose using microorganisms such as yeast and lactic acid bacteria | High yield, high purity | Complex process, high requirements for fermentation conditions |
| Enzymatic synthesis | Preparation of trehalose by enzyme-catalyzed reaction using specific trehalose synthase and maltose as substrate | Low cost, simple process, easy to control | Need to obtain high activity enzyme |
| Chemical synthesis | Chemical linking of glucose molecules to trehalose. | Suitable for laboratory research | Complex, high cost, difficult to industrialize |
| Extraction | Extraction and isolation from brown algae (e.g. kelp, wakame) by acidic solutions | Simple, natural raw materials | Low extraction efficiency, high cost |
| Methods | Features | Advantages | Disadvantages |
Why is Trehalose a Non-reducing Sugar?
By chemical definition, reducing sugars are sugars that contain a free aldehyde group (or a ketone group that can be converted to an aldehyde group) or a hemiacetal group, which are capable of reacting with oxidizing agents and exhibiting reducing properties. Common reducing sugars include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Fig.2 Examples of the reducing sugars[2].
Trehalose is classified as a non-reducing sugar, and its key properties stem from the lack of free aldehyde or hemiacetal groups in its molecular structure. The special glycosidic bond of trehalose completely locks the hemiacetal hydroxyl groups of the two glucose molecules, preventing them from being free. This structural feature makes it extremely stable.
- Lack of free aldehyde or hemiacetal groups: the trehalose molecule does not participate in redox reactions.
- Glycosidic bonds with low energy: their glycosidic bonds have a bond energy of about 1 kcal/mol and are difficult to break under extreme conditions.
The non-reducing nature of trehalose gives it a series of unique chemical and biological properties:
a. During food processing, trehalose does not undergo the Maillard reaction with amino acids, thus preventing browning and flavor changes. This makes it ideal for food preservation and additives.
b. Trehalose has a high thermal stability and glass transition temperature (110～120 ℃) and remains stable in solid, liquid, and gaseous environments. This property is essential for pharmaceutical and food preservation.
c. Trehalose effectively protects biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and cell membranes from environmental damage such as heat, drying, and oxidation. For example, delayed aging of starch and improved textural stability of food.
What is the Function of the Trehalose?
As a functional sugar, trehalose exhibits remarkable anticorrosive properties and biomolecular stabilization and has important functions in biological systems.
- Anti-stress protection
Trehalose is a typical stress metabolite that provides important protection to organisms facing extreme environments (e.g., heat, drought, freezing, etc.).
a) Protecting cell structure: Trehalose forms a protective film on the cell surface, preventing protein inactivation due to heat denaturation or desiccation, thus maintaining the normal physiological function of cells.
b) Enhance resistance: it significantly improves the tolerance of organisms to drought, low temperature, and high osmotic pressure environments, resulting in a significant increase in the survival rate of cells under adverse conditions.
- Stabilize protein and cell structure
a) Protein protection: By forming hydrogen bonds or other interactions with protein molecules, trehalose forms a stable protective layer to prevent protein denaturation or aggregation in adversity.
b) Cell membrane protection: Its special chemical properties allow it to form a protective film on the surface of the cell membrane, reducing water loss and mitigating damage to the cell from external stress.
- Energy storage substances
In some organisms (e.g., yeast), trehalose serves as a carbon storage material, providing energy to sustain life activities, especially in high-stress environments where its accumulation increases significantly.
What is the Function of Trehalose in Bacteria?
The role of trehalose in bacterial metabolism and survival is broad and far-reaching, serving as an important carbon source for bacteria and acting as a protective agent in extreme environments, as well as participating in the adaptive strategies of pathogenic bacteria. Below are a few specific examples of bacterial utilization of trehalose.
- As a carbon source
Many bacteria can utilize trehalose as a carbon source for metabolism. In resource-poor environments, trehalose provides a stable source of energy that supports bacterial growth and reproduction.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) and other intestinal bacteria hydrolyze trehalose into two molecules of glucose by the enzyme alginase. The glucose produced by catabolism then enters the glycolytic pathway to supply energy and produce metabolic intermediates.
- Protectant function
Trehalose is often used as a protective agent in bacteria and plays a key role under adverse conditions. Trehalose is able to reduce denaturation and water loss through hydrogen bonding with proteins and cell membranes while acting as an intracellular water substitute in dehydrating environments.
Under unfavorable conditions such as heat shock or dehydration, trehalose protects cells from damage by stabilizing proteins and cell membrane structures. For example, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer's yeast), trehalose levels increase significantly during heat shock, forming a protective barrier against heat-induced protein denaturation and cellular damage.
- Adaptation strategies of pathogenic bacteria
Some pathogenic bacteria enhance their adaptation and survival by synthesizing trehalose. Ralstonia solanacearum is a soil-infectious phytopathogen whose trehalose synthesis plays a crucial role in colonization and dissemination. In plant roots, the trehalose synthesized by the pathogen helps to overcome the host plant's defense mechanisms, such as protecting its own structure by neutralizing oxidative stress. Trehalose also helps the pathogen to resist drought and other adverse conditions in the soil, thus enhancing its ability to spread.
Fig.3 The various pathways for trehalose production in bacterial acidophiles[3].
What is Trehalose Used for?
Applications in the Food Industry
Alginose is used in most of the foods for its specific nature. It delays starch aging, protein denature, and lipid oxidation and retains food fresh in flavour and texture. Moreover, trehalose is a sugar that is around 45% sweeter than sucrose and is non-cariogenic, therefore commonly used in candies, cakes, and beverages for flavor and calories.
Applications in Pharmaceuticals
In the pharmaceutical industry, trehalose is frequently used as a stabilizer for drug preparations, such as for diabetes supportive therapy medication and antiviral medications. The trehalose is also a protector of enzymes, which can keep heat-sensitive enzymes stored and keep them active as needed.
Applications in Cosmetics
Trehalose is also used in cosmetics. It is a humectant and stabiliser of bioactive compounds, which keeps the skin moist. Furthermore, alginose is antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, which can be added to skin care products to support the protection and repair functions of the skin. It is also a sweetener, flavour enhancer, and stabilizer and is widely used in cosmetics like lipsticks and lip gloss.
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References
- Chen A., et al. Dietary Trehalose as a Bioactive Nutrient. Nutrients (2023).
- Bener M., et al. A Simple Automated Microplate Method for Determining Reducing Sugars in Food Extracts and Synthetic Serum Using Cupric-neocuproine as Reductant. Turkish Journal of Chemistry (2018).
- Liljeqvist M., et al. Metagenomic analysis reveals adaptations to a cold-adapted lifestyle in a low-temperature acid mine drainage stream. FEMS Microbiology Ecology (2015).
